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Exploratory Report: Annual Business Survey Ownership Diversity and Its Association with Patenting and Venture Capital Success
October 2024
Working Paper Number:
CES-24-62
The Annual Business Survey (ABS) as the replacement for the Survey of Business Owners (SBO) serves as the principal data source for investigating business ownership of minorities, women, and immigrants. As a combination of SBO, the innovation questions formerly collected in the Business R&D and Innovation Survey (BRDIS), and an R&D module for microbusinesses with fewer than 10 employees, ABS opens new research opportunities investigating how ownership demographics are associated with innovation. One critical issue that ABS is uniquely able to investigate is the role that diversity among ownership teams plays in facilitating innovation or intermediate innovation outcomes in R&D-performing microbusinesses. Earlier research using ABS identified both demographic and disciplinary diversity as strong correlates to new-to-market innovation. This research investigates the extent to which the various forms of diversity also impact tangible innovation related intermediate outcomes such as the awarding of patents or securing venture capital financing for R&D. The other major difference with the earlier work is the focus on R&D-performing microbusinesses that are an essential input to radical innovation through the division of innovative labor. Evidence that disciplinary and/or demographic diversity affect the likelihood of receiving a patent or securing venture capital financing by small, high-tech start-ups may have implications for higher education, affirmative action, and immigration policy.
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AI Adoption in America: Who, What, and Where
September 2023
Working Paper Number:
CES-23-48R
We study the early adoption and diffusion of five AI-related technologies (automated-guided vehicles, machine learning, machine vision, natural language processing, and voice recognition) as documented in the 2018 Annual Business Survey of 850,000 firms across the United States. We find that fewer than 6% of firms used any of the AI-related technologies we measure, though most very large firms reported at least some AI use. Weighted by employment, average adoption was just over 18%. AI use in production, while varying considerably by industry, nevertheless was found in every sector of the economy and clustered with emerging technologies such as cloud computing and robotics. Among dynamic young firms, AI use was highest alongside more educated, more-experienced, and younger owners, including owners motivated by bringing new ideas to market or helping the community. AI adoption was also more common alongside indicators of high-growth entrepreneurship, including venture capital funding, recent product and process innovation, and growth-oriented business strategies. Early adoption was far from evenly distributed: a handful of 'superstar' cities and emerging hubs led startups' adoption of AI. These patterns of early AI use foreshadow economic and social impacts far beyond this limited initial diffusion, with the possibility of a growing 'AI divide' if early patterns persist.
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Incidence and Performance of Spinouts and Incumbent New Ventures: Role of Selection and
Redeployability within Parent Firms
September 2021
Working Paper Number:
CES-21-27
Using matched employer-employee data from 30 U.S. states, we compare spinouts with new ventures formed by incumbents (INCs). We propose a selection-based framework comprising idea selection by parents to internally implement ideas as INCs, entrepreneurial selection by founders to form spinouts, and managerial selection to close ventures. Consistent with parents choosing better ideas in the idea selection stage, we find that INCs perform relatively better than spinouts, and more so with larger parents. Regarding the entrepreneurial selection stage, we find evidence consistent with resource requirements being a greater entry barrier to spinouts and greater information asymmetry promoting spinout formation. Parents' resource redeployment opportunities are associated with lower relative survival of INCs, consistent with their being subject to greater selection pressures in the managerial selection stage.
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Entrepreneurial Teams: Diversity of Skills and Early-Stage Growth
December 2020
Working Paper Number:
CES-20-45
We use employer-employee linked data to track the employment histories of team members prior to startup formation for a full cohort of new firms in the U.S. Using pre-startup industry experience to measure skillsets, we find that startups that have founding teams with more diverse collective skillsets grow faster than peer firms in the same industries and local economies. A one standard deviation increase in teams' skill diversity is associated with an increase in five-year employment (sales) growth of 16% (10%) from the mean. The effects are stronger among startups in innovative industries and among startups facing greater ex-ante uncertainty. Moreover, the results are robust to a variety of approaches to address the endogeneity of team composition. Overall, our results suggest that teams with more diverse collective skillsets adapt their strategies more successfully in the uncertain environments faced by (innovative) startup firms.
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Immigration and Entrepreneurship in the United States
December 2020
Working Paper Number:
CES-20-44
Immigrants can expand labor supply and compete for jobs with native-born workers. But immigrants may also start new firms, expanding labor demand. This paper uses U.S. administrative data and other data sources to study the role of immigrants in entrepreneurship. We ask how often immigrants start companies, how many jobs these firms create, and how firms founded by native-born individuals compare. A simple model provides a measurement framework for addressing the dual roles of immigrants as founders and workers. The findings suggest that immigrants act more as 'job creators' than 'job takers' and play outsized roles in U.S. high-growth entrepreneurship.
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Founding Teams and Startup Performance
November 2019
Working Paper Number:
CES-19-32
We explore the role of founding teams in accounting for the post-entry dynamics of startups. While the entrepreneurship literature has largely focused on business founders, we broaden this view by considering founding teams, which include both the founders and the initial employees in the first year of operations. We investigate the idea that the success of a startup may derive from the organizational capital that is created at firm formation and is inalienable from the founding team itself. To test this hypothesis, we exploit premature deaths to identify the causal impact of losing a founding team member on startup performance. We find that the exogenous separation of a founding team member due to premature death has a persistently large, negative, and statistically significant impact on post-entry size, survival, and productivity of startups. While we find that the loss of a key founding team member (e.g. founders) has an especially large adverse effect, the loss of a non-key founding team member still has a significant adverse effect, lending support to our inclusive definition of founding teams. Furthermore, we find that the effects are particularly strong for small founding teams but are not driven by activity in small business-intensive or High Tech industries.
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Human Capital, Parent Size and the Destination Industry of Spinouts
October 2019
Working Paper Number:
CES-19-30
We study how spinout founders' human capital and parent size relate to founders' propensity to stay in the same industry as their parents or to go outside the industry. Individuals with high human capital face a higher performance penalty if they form spinouts outside the parent industry, but they also face greater deterrence from large parents if they stay in that industry. Using matched employer employee data on spinout founders and their coworkers, we find that individuals with higher human capital are less likely to form spinouts in distant industries than in the parent's industry. Further, we find that as parent size increases, such individuals are less likely to form spinouts in the parent's industry and more likely to form spinouts in distant industries.
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IMMIGRANT ENTREPRENEURS AND INNOVATION IN THE U.S. HIGH-TECH SECTOR
February 2019
Working Paper Number:
CES-19-06
We estimate differences in innovation behavior between foreign versus U.S.-born entrepreneurs in high-tech industries. Our data come from the Annual Survey of Entrepreneurs, a random sample of firms with detailed information on owner characteristics and innovation activities. We find uniformly higher rates of innovation in immigrant-owned firms for 15 of 16 different innovation measures; the only exception is for copyright/trademark. The immigrant advantage holds for older firms as well as for recent start-ups and for every level of the entrepreneur's education. The size of the estimated immigrant-native differences in product and process innovation activities rises with detailed controls for demographic and human capital characteristics but falls for R&D and patenting. Controlling for finance, motivations, and industry reduces all coefficients, but for most measures and specifications immigrants are estimated to have a sizable advantage in innovation.
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Punctuated Entrepreneurship (Among Women)
May 2018
Working Paper Number:
CES-18-26
The gender gap in entrepreneurship may be explained in part by employee non-compete agreements. Exploiting exogenous state-level variation in non-compete policy, I find that women more strictly subject to non-competes are 11-17% more likely to start companies after their employers dissolve. This result is not explained by the incidence of non-competes or lawsuits; however, women face higher relative costs in defending against potential litigation and in returning to paid employment after abandoning their ventures. Thus entrepreneurship among women may be 'punctuated' in that would-be female founders are throttled by non-competes, their potential unleashed only by the failure of their employers.
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Age and High-Growth Entrepreneurship
April 2018
Working Paper Number:
carra-2018-03
Many observers, and many investors, believe that young people are especially likely to produce the most successful new firms. We use administrative data at the U.S. Census Bureau to study the ages of founders of growth-oriented start-ups in the past decade. Our primary finding is that successful entrepreneurs are middle-aged, not young. The mean founder age for the 1 in 1,000 fastest growing new ventures is 45.0. The findings are broadly similar when considering high-technology sectors, entrepreneurial hubs, and successful firm exits. Prior experience in the specific industry predicts much greater rates of entrepreneurial success. These findings strongly reject common hypotheses that emphasize youth as a key trait of successful entrepreneurs.
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