This paper estimates workers' preferences for firms by studying the structure of employer-toemployer transitions in U.S. administrative data. The paper uses a tool from numerical linear algebra to measure the central tendency of worker flows, which is closely related to the ranking of firms revealed by workers' choices. There is evidence for compensating differential when workers systematically move to lower-paying firms in a way that cannot be accounted for by layoffs or
differences in recruiting intensity. The estimates suggest that compensating differentials account
for over half of the firm component of the variance of earnings.
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Agent Heterogeneity and Learning: An Application to Labor Markets
October 2002
Working Paper Number:
tp-2002-20
I develop a matching model with heterogeneous workers, rms, and worker-firm
matches, and apply it to longitudinal linked data on employers and employees. Workers
vary in their marginal product when employed and their value of leisure when unemployed.
Firms vary in their marginal product and cost of maintaining a vacancy. The
marginal product of a worker-firm match also depends on a match-specific interaction
between worker and rm that I call match quality. Agents have complete information
about worker and rm heterogeneity, and symmetric but incomplete information about
match quality. They learn its value slowly by observing production outcomes. There
are two key results. First, under a Nash bargain, the equilibrium wage is linear in a
person-specific component, a firm-specific component, and the posterior mean of beliefs
about match quality. Second, in each period the separation decision depends only on
the posterior mean of beliefs and person and rm characteristics. These results have
several implications for an empirical model of earnings with person and rm eects.
The rst implies that residuals within a worker-firm match are a martingale; the second
implies the distribution of earnings is truncated.
I test predictions from the matching model using data from the Longitudinal
Employer-Household Dynamics (LEHD) Program at the US Census Bureau. I present
both xed and mixed model specifications of the equilibrium wage function, taking
account of structural aspects implied by the learning process. In the most general
specification, earnings residuals have a completely unstructured covariance within a
worker-firm match. I estimate and test a variety of more parsimonious error structures,
including the martingale structure implied by the learning process. I nd considerable
support for the matching model in these data.
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Job Referral Networks and the Determination of Earnings in Local Labor Markets
December 2010
Working Paper Number:
CES-10-40
Referral networks may affect the efficiency and equity of labor market outcomes, but few studies have been able to identify earnings effects empirically. To make progress, I set up a model of on-the-job search in which referral networks channel information about high-paying jobs. I evaluate the model using employer-employee matched data for the U.S. linked to the Census block of residence for each worker. The referral effect is identified by variations in the quality of local referral networks within narrowly defined neighborhoods. I find, consistent with the model, a positive and significant role for local referral networks on the full distribution of earnings outcomes from job search.
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Earnings Inequality and Mobility Trends in the United States: Nationally Representative Estimates from Longitudinally Linked Employer-Employee Data
January 2017
Working Paper Number:
CES-17-24
Using earnings data from the U.S. Census Bureau, this paper analyzes the role of the employer in explaining the rise in earnings inequality in the United States. We first establish a consistent frame of analysis appropriate for administrative data used to study earnings inequality. We show that the trends in earnings inequality in the administrative data from the Longitudinal Employer-Household Dynamics Program are inconsistent with other data sources when we do not correct for the presence of misused SSNs. After this correction to the worker frame, we analyze how the earnings distribution has changed in the last decade. We present a decomposition of the year-to-year changes in the earnings distribution from 2004-2013. Even when simplifying these flows to movements between the bottom 20%, the middle 60% and the top 20% of the earnings distribution, about 20.5 million workers undergo a transition each year. Another 19.9 million move between employment and nonemployment. To understand the role of the firm in these transitions, we estimate a model for log earnings with additive fixed worker and firm effects using all jobs held by eligible workers from 2004-2013. We construct a composite log earnings firm component across all jobs for a worker in a given year and a non-firm component. We also construct a skill-type index. We show that, while the difference between working at a low-or middle-paying firm are relatively small, the gains from working at a top-paying firm are large. Specifically, the benefits of working for a high-paying firm are not only realized today, through higher earnings paid to the worker, but also persist through an increase in the probability of upward mobility. High-paying firms facilitate moving workers to the top of the earnings distribution and keeping them there.
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Wage Dispersion, Compensation Policy and the Role of Firms
November 2005
Working Paper Number:
tp-2005-04
Empirical work in economics stresses the importance of unobserved firm- and person-level characteristics
in the determination of wages, finding that these unobserved components account for the overwhelming
majority of variation in wages. However, little is known about the mechanisms sustaining these wage di'er-
entials. This paper attempts to demystify the firm-side of the puzzle by developing a statistical model that
enriches the role that firms play in wage determination, allowing firms to influence both average wages as
well as the returns to observable worker characteristics.
I exploit the hierarchical nature of a unique employer-employee linked dataset for the United States,
estimating a multilevel statistical model of earnings that accounts for firm-specific deviations in average
wages as well as the returns to components of human capital - race, gender, education, and experience -
while also controlling for person-level heterogeneity in earnings. These idiosyncratic prices reflect one aspect
of firm compensation policy; another, and more novel aspect, is the unstructured characterization of the
covariance of these prices across firms.
I estimate the model's variance parameters using Restricted (or Residual) Maximum Likelihood tech-
niques. Results suggest that there is significant variation in the returns to worker characteristics across
firms. First, estimates of the parameters of the covariance matrix of firm-specific returns are statistically
significant. Firms that tend to pay higher average wages also tend to pay higher than average returns to
worker characteristics; firms that tend to reward highly the human capital of men also highly reward the
human capital of women. For instance, the correlation between the firm-specific returns to education for
men and women is 0.57. Second, the firm-specific returns account for roughly 9% of the variation in wages
- approximately 50% of the variation in wages explained by firm-specific intercepts alone. The inclusion of
firm-specific returns ties variation in wages, otherwise attributable to firm-specific intercepts, to observable
components of human capital.
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Cyclical Worker Flows: Cleansing vs. Sullying
May 2021
Working Paper Number:
CES-21-10
Do recessions speed up or impede productivity-enhancing reallocation? To investigate this question, we use U.S. linked employer-employee data to examine how worker flows contribute to productivity growth over the business cycle. We find that in expansions high-productivity firms grow faster primarily by hiring workers away from lower-productivity firms. The rate at which job-to-job flows move workers up the productivity ladder is highly procyclical. Productivity growth slows during recessions when this job ladder collapses. In contrast, flows into nonemployment from low productivity firms disproportionately increase in recessions, which leads to an increase in productivity growth. We thus find evidence of both sullying and cleansing effects of recessions, but the timing of these effects differs. The cleansing effect dominates early in downturns but the sullying effect lingers well into the economic recovery.
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Downward Nominal Wage Rigidity in the United States:
New Evidence from Worker-Firm Linked Data
February 2019
Working Paper Number:
CES-19-07
This paper examines the extent and consequences of Downward Nominal Wage Rigidity (DNWR) using administrative worker-firm linked data from the Longitudinal Employer Household Dynamics (LEHD) program for a large representative U.S. state. Prior to the Great Recession, only 7-8% of job stayers are paid the same nominal hourly wage rate as one year earlier - substantially less than previously found in survey-based data - and about 20% of job stayers experience a wage cut. During the Great Recession, the incidence of wage cuts increases to 30%, followed by a large rise in the proportion of wage freezes to 16% as the economy recovers. Total earnings of job stayers exhibit even fewer zero changes and a larger incidence of reductions than hourly wage rates, due to systematic variations in hours worked. The results are consistent with concurrent findings in the literature that reductions in base pay are exceedingly rare but that firms use different forms of non-base pay and variations in hours worked to flexibilize labor cost. We then exploit the worker-firm link of the LEHD and find that during the Great Recession, firms with indicators of DNWR reduced employment by about 1.2% more per year. This negative effect is driven by significantly lower hiring rates and persists into the recovery. Our results suggest that despite the relatively large incidence of wage cuts in the aggregate, DNWR has sizable allocative consequences.
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Sorting Between and Within Industries: A Testable Model of Assortative Matching
January 2017
Working Paper Number:
CES-17-43
We test Shimer's (2005) theory of the sorting of workers between and within industrial sectors based on directed search with coordination frictions, deliberately maintaining its static general equilibrium framework. We fit the model to sector-specific wage, vacancy and output data, including publicly-available statistics that characterize the distribution of worker and employer wage heterogeneity across sectors. Our empirical method is general and can be applied to a broad class of assignment models. The results indicate that industries are the loci of sorting-more productive workers are employed in more productive industries. The evidence confirm that strong assortative matching can be present even when worker and employer components of wage heterogeneity are weakly correlated.
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The Alpha Beta Gamma of the Labor Market
April 2022
Working Paper Number:
CES-22-10
Using a large panel dataset of US workers, we calibrate a search-theoretic model of the labor market, where workers are heterogeneous with respect to the parameters governing their employment transitions. We first approximate heterogeneity with a discrete number of latent types, and then calibrate type-specific parameters by matching type-specific moments. Heterogeneity is well approximated by 3 types: as, 's and ?s. Workers of type a find employment quickly because they have large gains from trade, and stick to their jobs because their productivity is similar across jobs. Workers of type ? find employment slowly because they have small gains from trade, and are unlikely to stick to their job because they keep searching for jobs in the right tail of the productivity distribution. During the Great Recession, the magnitude and persistence of aggregate unemployment is caused by ?s, who are vulnerable to shocks and, once displaced, they cycle through multiple unemployment spells before finding stable employment.
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A Formal Test of Assortative Matching in the Labor Market
November 2009
Working Paper Number:
CES-09-40
We estimate a structural model of job assignment in the presence of coordination frictions due to Shimer (2005). The coordination friction model places restrictions on the joint distribution of worker and firm effects from a linear decomposition of log labor earnings. These restrictions permit estimation of the unobservable ability and productivity differences between workers and their employers as well as the way workers sort into jobs on the basis of these unobservable factors. The estimation is performed on matched employer-employee data from the LEHD program of the U.S. Census Bureau. The estimated correlation between worker and firm effects from the earnings decomposition is close to zero, a finding that is often interpreted as evidence that there is no sorting by comparative advantage in the labor market. Our estimates suggest that his finding actually results from a lack of sufficient heterogeneity in the workforce and available jobs. Workers do sort into jobs on the basis of productive differences, but the effects of sorting are not visible because of the composition of workers and employers.
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The Long-Term Effects of Job Mobility on the Adult Earnings of Young Men: Evidence from Integrated Employer-Employee Data
June 2005
Working Paper Number:
CES-05-05
The paper follows a population of 18-year-old men to examine the impact that early job mobility has on their earnings prospects as young adults. Longitudinal employer-employee data from the state of Maryland allow me to take into consideration the endogenous determination of mobility in response to unobserved worker as well as firm characteristics, which may lead to spurious results. The descriptive portion of the paper shows that mobility patterns of young workers differ considerably with the characteristics of the firm; however, growth patterns are not significantly different on average. Workers employed in high-turnover firms (such as those in retail and services) experience more job turnover but similar rates of wage growth compared to workers employed in low turnover firms (such as those in manufacturing); however, their wage levels remain below and the wage gap actually increases over time. Regression results controlling for unobservable show that employers in the low-turnover sector discount earnings of workers who displayed early market mobility. By contrast, I find no evidence that mobility has negative effects for workers that remain employed in the high turnover sector.
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